HEALTH PROTECTION AND JUDICIAL REVIEW
AUTHORED BY: TANUSHA PALI
(L.L.B 3 YEARS)
AMITY LAW SCHOOL, NOIDA
INTRODUCTION:
The Constitution of India which embraced by the Constituent Assembly on the 26th November 1949, came into compel on the 26th January 1950. Indians were craving for flexibility “to shape their own fate, to seek after their since quite a while ago declared points and yearnings and to make the national foundations that would encourage the satisfaction of their points.”
It gives the idea that the longing for finish flexibility and improvement with value and equity, which the Indians were looking forward all through the period before the Independence, gets an open door for full expression as the constitutions. Hence, the Indian Constitution is special both from the perspective of its substance and furthermore for its size and frame. It is said that the Indian Constitution is the longest and most definite Constitution on the planet, the first Constitution containing upwards of 395 articles and 8 plans touching upon various parts of financial, political and different parts of life of the general population. It is one of a kind in another sense likewise, viz. large number of alterations have been presented in the Indian Constitution shape time to time contingent on the necessities. This additionally shows the status of the Indian framework to roll out the improvements, at whatever point required.
Aside from plotting the Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of the subjects, the Constitution highlights the need of the incorporation of the social and monetary rights with the political opportunity. In this sense, the Indian Constitution prominently demonstrates the Indian state being a welfare state. As Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru stated, “Political flexibility is just a necessary chore, the end being the raising of the general population to more elevated amounts and thus, the general headway of humankind.” It is this rationality which is reflected in the Indian Constitution regarding its diverse calendars and the substance of these timetables.
Despite the fact that wellbeing, as a division, does not show up in many spots of the Indian Constitution, there are roundabout and unsaid references to soundness of the general population and the part the state needs to play in the improvement of strength of the general population. In the accompanying passages, an endeavor is made to break down the different parts of the Indian Constitution so far as the wellbeing division is concerned.
Health Care System:
The Constitution has made medicinal services benefits to a great extent a duty of State governments however has sufficiently left mobility for the Center since an expansive number of things are recorded in the simultaneous rundown. The Center has possessed the capacity to grow its circle of control over the wellbeing sector.
Hence the focal government has played a much more huge part in the wellbeing division than requested by the Constitution. The wellbeing arrangement and arranging system has been given by the focal government. In solid terms, the focal government has pushed different national projects (vertical projects for uncleanliness, tuberculosis, visual deficiency, intestinal sickness, smallpox, looseness of the bowels, filaria, goiter and now HIV/AIDS) in which the States have had little say. The States have submitted because of the focal government’s going with subsidizing. These projects are executed consistently over the length and broadness of the nation. At that point there are the Center’s own particular projects of family arranging and general vaccination which the states need to actualize. In total, focal government intercession in the state’s area of social insurance exercises is a vital element that should be considered in any investigation of general medicinal services administrations.
The conveyance of social insurance administrations is skewed supporting urban zones. Huge urban communities, contingent upon their populace have a couple state-run healing facilities (counting educating clinics). At the area level on a normal there is a 150 slept with Civil General Hospital in the principle region town and a couple of littler doctor’s facilities and dispensaries spread over alternate towns in the locale and once in a while in huge towns. In the country ranges of the locale there are rustic clinics, essential wellbeing focuses (PHCs) and sub-focuses that give different wellbeing administrations and effort administrations. For the nation overall by and by there are an expected 22,000 healing centers (30 for each penny provincial), 23,000 dispensaries (50 for every penny rustic) and around 1.5 million beds (21per penny country) (Table A). The provincial zones likewise have 23,500 PHCs and 140,000 sub-focuses. In any case, when this information is spoken to proportionately to its populace we see that urban zones have 4.48 healing centers, 6.16 dispensaries and 308 beds for each 100,000 urban populace in sharp complexity to country zones which have 0.77 doctor’s facilities, 1.37 dispensaries, 3.2 PHCs and 44 beds for every 100,000 rustic populace. The city doctor’s facilities and the common healing facilities are essentially therapeudic focuses giving outpatient and inpatient administrations to essential, auxiliary and tertiary care.
Interestingly the rustic foundations give primarily preventive and promotive administrations like transmittable illness control programs, family arranging administrations and vaccination administrations. Therapeudic mind in the rustic wellbeing establishments are the weakest segment despite the fact that there exists a popularity for such administrations. This request is met either by the city healing centers or by private professionals. Restorative instruction is bestowed generally through state-claimed/supported organizations at very financed costs. There are 195 perceived allopathic restorative universities in the nation delivering more than 20,000 therapeutic graduates each year 75 for each penny of whom are from open establishments. Be that as it may, the outturn from these establishments does not profit the general wellbeing administrations since 80 for every penny of the outturn from open medicinal schools either joins the private area or moves abroad. The private wellbeing division in India is substantial.
In 2002 an expected 62 for every penny of clinics, 54 for each penny dispensaries and 35 for every penny of beds were in the private part (Table A). n expected 75 for every penny of allopathic specialists are in the private area and around 80 for each penny are singular experts. More than 90 for each penny of non-allopathic specialists work in the private division. Private wellbeing administrations, particularly the general specialists, are the single biggest class of social insurance administrations used by the general population. There likewise exist an extensive number of inadequate experts in urban and rustic ranges in the private area whose administrations are all around used, yet their real numbers are not known. Accessible information demonstrate that in 2004 there were more than 660,000 enrolled allopathic specialists and more than 780,000 enlisted non-allopathic specialists. Of the 1.4 million specialists around 1.2 million are evaluated to be in the private area. The private wellbeing segment, particularly the allopathic, constitutes a persuasive anteroom in approach making hovers in India. There is for all intents and purposes no direction of this division.
The therapeutic chambers of the different frameworks of pharmaceutical perform just the capacity of enlisting qualified specialists and issuing them the permit to hone. There is no checking, proceeding with training, value direction, remedy reviewing and so on., either by the restorative committees or the administration. It has not been conceivable to actualize dynamic approach activities, for example, the proposal of the Hathi Committee Report2 Pharmaceutical detailing creation in India is by and by worth over Rs. 280 billion and more than 98 for every penny of this is in the private segment. How does this effect on wellbeing results, particularly among poor people? In Table A we see generous changes in wellbeing results, for example, IMR, CBR, CDR and future throughout the years. Be that as it may, India’s worldwide rank opposite these pointers has not changed.
Truth be told the most recent Human Development Report demonstrates a descending pattern in India’s worldwide ranking.3 This moderating of development in India’s human advancement score is maybe connected to the declining ventures and uses in the general wellbeing area (as additionally the social areas all in all), particularly in the 1990s. In the mid-1980s general wellbeing consumption had crested due to the substantial development of the country wellbeing framework yet after 1986 one witnesses a declining pattern in both new ventures and in addition uses as an extent to the GDP, and as a percent of government’s general uses. [Duggal et.al., 1995 and Duggal, 2002]. In sharp difference out-of-pocket costs that go generally to the private wellbeing area, have seen remarkable increments.
HEALTH UNDER THE DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES:
Under Part IV of the Constitution sketching out the Directive Principles of State Policy, there are various unsaid references to the wellbeing advancement of the general population. Truth be told, the major rights and the Directive Principles constitute an inner voice of our Constitution. Beyond any doubt the Directive Principles of State Policy are not justiceable proposing that the state can pardon itself from actualizing the different arrangements under the head of Directive Principles.
In any case, the substance of the Directive Principles which show the worry and the dedication of the Indian Constitution for social welfare and balance do give an unequivocal heading to the strategy making in the nation. Provision No.38 under the Directive Principles alludes to the state requiring to secure a social request for the advancement of welfare of the general population. Certain standards of strategy to be trailed by the state allude to the wellbeing and improvement of the general population.
For instance, it is said that the state might, specifically, coordinate its arrangement towards securing “that the native men and women similarly have the privilege to a sufficient methods for vocation, that the wellbeing and quality of laborers, men and ladies and the young period of kids are not manhandled and that subjects are not constrained by monetary need to enter the side interests unsuited to their age or quality : That youngsters are given open doors and offices to create in a sound way, and in states of opportunity and pride and that adolescence and youth are ensured against abuse and against good and material surrender.” Such approach unmistakably demonstrate obligation and a worry that the state ought to have towards physical and mental strength of the Indian residents independent of their social financial and statistic conditions. Proviso No.41 under the Directive Principles states as takes after : “The state might, inside the cutoff points of its monetary limit and improvement make compelling arrangement for securing the privilege to work, to instruction and to open help with instances of unemployment, maturity, infection and disablement and in different instances of un-merited need.” The arrangement likewise demonstrates that, beyond what many would consider possible the state ought to endeavor to help the subjects by physical and money related arrangement in the circumstances of seniority ailment and disablement. Thus, under this “order” the state is required to give the general wellbeing and therapeutic care-preventives and also corrective and limited time benefits in the field of wellbeing. Under Clause No.42 of the Directive Principles, there is a reference to the arrangement for just and human states of work and maternity help. This infers it is not just the infection or disablement which requires the state to mediate yet it is additionally under the ordinary circumstances of work and the typical encounters of the nationals in specific situations that the state ought to give the required help. In this manner, the state needs to intercede to secure for these natives, appropriate conditions in the work environment. Such states of work ought to be accessible to all nationals independent of their sex, district, dialect, group, race and so forth. Despite the fact that it is an ordinary event for ladies, the maternity puts upon them extraordinary anxiety and mental pressure, Under these conditions additionally, the state needs to give the aids and help. This may appear as monetary help for hostile to natal and post-natal care and giving the offices to such care.
Because of various components – recorded, financial, hereditary and so forth., every one of the natives don’t have a similar level of wholesome status and subsequently, wellbeing status. It is watched that the offspring of the socio-monetarily denied groups are very inclined to malady by virtue of the poor sustenance admission. A similar issue is found on account of ladies of the socio-monetarily denied segments of the populace. The Directive Principles of State Policy endorses as the obligation of the state to raise the level of sustenance and the way of life and to enhance general wellbeing. Under Clause No.47 in the section on Directive Principles, it is said that the state might record the raising of the level of sustenance and way of life of its kin and the change of general wellbeing as one of its essential obligations. It is, in this setting the state is required to find a way to realize “Forbiddance” of the utilization with the exception of medicinal reasons for inebriating drinks and of medications, extreme dosages of which are harmful to wellbeing. This to be sure is an obvious verbalization of the friendly part of the state in securing the wellbeing of the residents as per the Indian Constitution.
This suggests a positive impedance of the state with the buyer power. Such intercession or limitation of the opportunity of the nationals is required on account of what are known as people in general merchandise or legitimacy products, with respect to which, not just the impacts for the shopper from the utilization of these merchandise are damaging yet there are additionally contrary externalitie for different residents. With respect to inebriating drinks, drugs, smoking and so on which prompt such damaging impacts for the buyers and to these other than their purchasers and also, the state needs to intercede viably to contain its utilization.
ANIMAL HEALTH, PLANT HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT HEALTH:
When we are thinking about the topic of whether the Indian Constitution has sufficient references to the issue of improvement of wellbeing, we are constantly prompt concentrate our consideration on human wellbeing. Shockingly, in the general examinations of wellbeing, creature wellbeing does not get satisfactory core interest. The Indian Constitution be that as it may, has valued the significance of creature wellbeing too. The Constitution additionally alludes to the protection and change of solid condition which is so significant for the change of wellbeing status of every living being. For instance, under the Clause No.48 of the part on Directive Principles of State Policy, there is a reference to the association of farming and creature cultivation and furthermore change of condition and protecting of backwoods and natural life. It is said that the state might attempt to arrange farming and creature cultivation on current and logical lines and should, specifically, make strides for saving and enhancing the breeds and disallowing the butcher of dairy animals and calves and other milch and draft steers. The proviso additionally expresses that the state should attempt to ensure and enhance the earth and to shield the backwoods and natural life of the nation.
HEALTH UNDER FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES:
Similarly as there is a prerequisite that the state might need to give certain offices and administrations to the residents, there is specify in the Constitution, of an equal necessity as the principal obligations of the natives towards the nation. Provision No.51A of the area on Fundamental Duties expresses that each subject of India has the obligation to secure and enhance the regular habitat including woodlands, lakes, waterways and natural life and to have empathy for living animals. In this sense, there is a joint obligation from the state and also the nationals towards the support of human and creature wellbeing and furthermore the long haul issues identifying with the change in the wellbeing states of the individuals and the creatures.
Under Chapter 111 of the Constitution alluding to the state council. Along these lines, the Constitution has endeavored to maintain a strategic distance from the unfavorable ramifications of unsound psychological wellness in the aggregate basic leadership handle. In this manner, the topic of wellbeing and the issues of basic leadership and organization are endeavored to be coordinated in the Indian Constitution.
HEALTH IN THE INDIAN FEDERAL SET-UP:
The seventh timetable of the Indian Constitution specifies the particular obligations of various layer of Government in an elected system towards the topic of wellbeing. Such obligations are demonstrated under the Union List, State List and the Concurrent List.
1.THE UNION LIST:
Court isolates including doctor’s facilities associated therewith, seamens and marine doctor’s facilities are genuinely put under the Union List inferring the obligations of the Union Government towards this capacity. Additionally the upkeep and improvement of the nature of products to be sent out of India or transported starting with one state then onto the next even inside India are specified as the worry of the Union Government. This likewise is honest to goodness in perspective of the way that exclusive the Union Government can regulate such issues. The accompanying things identified with the wellbeing administrations and wellbeing status of the general population are additionally put under the Union List. These things are considered under Clause No.58, 59, 81 and 84. They are replicated underneath: 58. Make, supply and appropriation of salt by Union organizations; direction and control of fabricate, supply a dispersion of salt by different offices. 59. Development, produce, and deal for fare of opium. 81. Between state movement; Inter-State isolate. 84. Obligations of extract on tobacco and different merchandise made or created in India with the exception of – (a) heavy drinker mixers for human utilization; (b) opium, Indian hemp and other opiate medications and opiates, however including restorative and can arrangements containing liquor or any substance incorporated into sub-section (b) of this passage.
2.HEALTH AND THE STATE LIST:
Under the State List, there are immediate references to the arrangements of medicinal services offices. For instance, Clause No.6 under the State List alludes to general wellbeing and sanitation, healing centers and dispensaries. Proviso No.7 alludes to the journeys inside India in which case, the arrangement of human services offices goes under the state duties. Proviso No.8 alludes to the inebriating alcohols, the generation, produce, ownership, transport, buy and deal and so forth of which should be regulated by the State Government in the elected structure. Condition No. 10 alludes to the internments and graveyard, incineration and incineration grounds, appropriate upkeep of which is exceptionally vital for human creature wellbeing. This additionally is put under the State List. Strangely, the plant wellbeing this additionally put under the State List since agribusiness is dealt with as the state subject. Assurance of the plants against vermin and counteractive action of plant infections is considered as State Government’s duty under Clause No. 14 of the State List. Likewise, the safeguarding, security and change of stock and avoidance of creature infections and of veterinary – preparing and practice are additionally put under the state duties. The greater part of the creature, human and plant medical issues are the aftereffect of inappropriate water administration and nonappearance of clean water supply. The whole subject of water is placed in Clause no. 17 under the State List. Correspondingly, fisheries-advancement and fish breeds, security of the fish from illnesses is likewise kept under the state obligations. Markets and fairs, hotels and so on have suggestions for the medical issues. The state s required to have a general supervision of fairs, inns, motels and so on so that the capacity of these would not bring about wellbeing perils. The state has the privilege of demanding extract obligations on alcoholic mixers for human utilization, opium, Indian hemp and other opiate medications and opiates. With this, the state has an instrument of control of the utilization of these things which have effective ramifications for the human wellbeing.
3. CONCURRENT LIST:
The accompanying things are incorporated under a Concurrent List – List III of the Indian Constitution. These things allude to the different parts of physical, mental and social human services arrangement, the strategy as to medications and solutions and so on. These provisos are repeated beneath :
3. Counteracting detainment for reasons associated with the security of the State, the support of open request, or the upkeep of provisions and administrations basic to the group; people subjected to such confinement.
5. Marriage and separation; newborn children and minors; reception; wills, intestacy and progression; joint family and parcel; all matters in regard of which gatherings in legal procedures were quickly before the initiation of this Constitution subject to their own law.
16. Lunacy and mental lack, including places for the gathering or treatment of maniacs and mental insufficient.
18. Corruption of foodstuffs and different merchandise.
19. Medications and toxins, subject to the arrangements of passage 59 of List as for opium.
91. (20A. Populace control and family arranging).
24. Weakness and maturity annuities and maternity benefits.
92. (25. Restorative instruction and colleges, subject to the arrangements of passages 63,64,65 and 66 of List I; professional and specialized preparing of work.)
25. Therapeutic and different callings.
28. Foundations and beneficent organizations.
29. Aversion of the augmentation starting with one State then onto the next of irresistible or infectious sicknesses or pets influencing men, creatures or plants.
30. Fundamental insights including enlistment of births and passings.
93. (33. Exchange and business in, and the creation, supply and appropriation of) (b) foodstuffs, including palatable oilseeds and oils.
CASE LAWS:
1.Municipal Council, Ratlam vs. Vardhichand & Ors:
Ratlam is a city in the State of Madhya Pradesh in India. A portion of the occupants of the region recorded a grievance before the Sub-Divisional Magistrate affirming that the region is not building appropriate channels and there is stench and stink created by the excertion by close-by ghetto inhabitants and that there was irritation to the solicitors. The Sub-Divisional Magistrate guided the region to set up an arrangement with six months to expel the disturbance. The request go by the SDM was affirmed by the High Court. T(General wellbeing is state’s need)
he Municipality came in request under the steady gaze of the Supreme Court of India and battled that it didn’t have adequate assets to do the work coordinated by the SDM. Equity Krishna Iyer watched: The State will understand that Article 47 makes it a fundamental rule of administration that means are taken for the change of general wellbeing as among its essential obligations. The Supreme Court of India offered directions to the Municipality to match to the bearings and said that lack of assets should not be a guard to do the fundamental obligations by the neighborhood experts.
From that point, arrangement of cases were filled under the steady gaze of the Supreme Court and there was a dynamic change in the entire approach of the courts in matters concerning condition.
2. CESC Ltd. vs. Subhash Chandra Bose:
(Ideal to wellbeing is a basic right)
Calcutta Electricity Supply Corporation (India) Ltd. (CESC), the Appellant, drew in contractual workers (the Respondents), including Mr. Subhash Chandra Bose, to give unearthing, transformation of overhead electric lines and laying of underground links under open streets, and additionally for repair and support. The Regional Director of the Employees State Insurance Corporation (ESIC) informed the Appellant that workers whose wages were being paid through such a temporary worker would fall inside the extent of Section 2(9) of the Employee State Insurance Act, 1948 (the Act). The Appellant compared with the agent body for contractual workers, Association of Electrical Contractors of Eastern India (Contractor Association), and started deducting 10% of their temporary workers charge, for the reasons for paying the ensuing temporary workers business protection costs. The Respondents documented a writ appeal, in the High Court, under Article 226 of the Constitution (unique locale of the High Court) to have the findings revoked. They kept up that their representatives were not secured by the meaning of worker under Section 2 (9) of the Act. The Appellant additionally recorded a writ request of in the High Court against ESIC battling that it was under no commitment to request commitments for protection in regard of the representatives of the electrical temporary workers. The Court connected the standard of congruous elucidation in clarifying what constituted supervision under the Act. It characterized supervision just like the worker is nearly viewed, is issued restorative orders and has his work examined in a way which influences its quality. The Court in this way held there was no real supervision by CESC or by its specialists. The Court asserted the High Courts finding that CESC was just checking the work for consummation and was not administering the work while it was in advance. The basis of supervision as specified in Section 2 (9) of the Act not being satisfied, the Court held that the laborers were not representatives of CESC. Undertaking an investigation on whether the autonomous electrical temporary workers were operators of CESC, the Court held that by virtue of the statute, a contractual worker would never be a specialist of the main. It additionally held that survey the contractual worker as an operator of the chief would be opposing to the standard of agreements that a temporary worker and contractee can never be a similar individual. The Court, maintaining the judgment of the High Court, held that supervision by the temporary workers was to satisfy an authoritative commitment and the contractual workers were not going about as operators of the essential boss. The Act tried to accomplish the twin objects of government managed savings i.e. health advantages and right of the worker.
The court watched that wellbeing is not just nonattendance of affliction: “The term wellbeing suggests more than a nonappearance of disorder. Restorative care and wellbeing offices secure against disorder as well as guarantee stable labor for monetary improvement. Offices of wellbeing and therapeutic care create commitment and devotion to put forth a valiant effort, physically and in addition rationally, in efficiency. It empowers the specialist to appreciate the his reward for all the hard work, to keep him physically fit and rationally caution for driving an effective monetary, social and social life. The restorative offices are, in this way, some portion of government managed savings and like plated edged security, it would yield quick return in the expanded generation or at any rate lessen non-attendance on grounds of ailment, and so on. Wellbeing is in this way a condition of finish physical, mental and social prosperity and not only the nonappearance of sickness or illness. In the light of Arts. 22 to 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and in the light of financial equity guaranteed in our Constitution, ideal to wellbeing is an essential human appropriate to laborers. The upkeep of wellbeing is a most basic sacred objective whose acknowledgment requires cooperation by numerous social and monetary elements.”
3. Mahendra Pratap Singh vs. Orissa State:
(Individuals are qualified for satisfactory human services)
The candidate, an ex-sarpanch of Pachhikote Gram Panchayat moved toward the court for issuance of suitable writ instructing the inverse gatherings to take powerful measures to run Primary Health Center at Pachhikote inside Korei obstruct in the locale of Jaipur by giving all comforts and offices to appropriate running of the said wellbeing focus. The Government of Orissa chose to open certain essential wellbeing focuses in various regions in 1991-92 subject to satisfaction of specific conditions, on premise of requests of the nearby individuals and open on the loose. The conditions satisfied were as per the following:
(i) The neighborhood individuals ought to give least one section of land of land properly promised for the Panchayat Samiti for the Medical Institution inside a time of one month from the date of issue of this request.
(ii) The neighborhood individuals ought to give lasting structures to the restorative foundations and also for the staff inside six months from the date of issue of this request.”
The court noted:
“Awesome accomplishments and achievements in life are conceivable on the off chance that one is allowed to lead an acceptably sound life. Wellbeing is life’s beauty and endeavors are to be made to support the same. In a Country like our own, it may not be conceivable. To have refined doctor’s facilities yet unquestionably villagers of this Country inside their confinements can try to have a Primary Health Center. The Government is required to help individuals, and its attempt ought to be to see that the general population get treatment and have a sound existence. Sound society is an aggregate pick up and no Government ought to attempt to cover it. Essential concern ought to be the PHC and specialized shackles can’t be acquainted as subterfuges with cause obstructions in the foundation of wellbeing focus.”
The Court held that the Government is required to help individuals and its attempt ought to be to see that the general population get treatment and have a sound existence. Essential wellbeing focuses ought to along these lines be of chief concern and it would be inconsistent with general wellbeing if a Government made obstacle the foundation of such focuses. The Court requested the Government of Orissa to consent to the built up prerequisites and strategies before the finish of December 1996. It additionally expressed that the gram panchayat was pleasant to offer of the gram panchayat working for running of the wellbeing focus. In the event that the building was as yet accessible, the same could be used with the end goal of running of the PHC, till the new building was finished. The Government either occupies the staff from Korei or makes appropriate course of action for running of the PHC in the working of Pachhikote Gram Panchayat. Essential course of action would be made inside a time of three months from that day. This is maybe the main judgment recognizing the privilege to wellbeing for an all inclusive community.
4. CERC vs. Union of India:
(Wellbeing and Health Care of Workers is a fundamental segment of appropriate to life)
On 14.4.1981 the administration of Gujarat, in exercise of the forces presented by segment 18(1) of the natural life Protection Act, 1972, announced a piece of the woodland zone in Lakhpat Taluka of Kutch District as an “untamed life Sanctuary”. The aggregate zone of the haven was 765.79 sq. Kilometers. On 27.7.1993 it crossed out that warning and issued another whereby just a piece of the said held timberland was proclaimed as the ‘chinkara untamed life asylum’. The zone so announced was 94.87 sq. Kilometers. The said two warnings were tested by the candidate by recording writ petitions in the Gujurat High Court. The High Court suppressed both those notices. The outcome was that the before warning dated 14.4.1981 was resuscitated. From that point the state government made certain request and chose to delimit the region of that haven as it was observed to be more than required and the delimitation was probably going to be useful in methodicallly building up that zone financially by making utilization of its mineral riches. It then moved the state lawmaking body for passing a fitting determination for that benefit. The state lawmaking body, from that point on 27.7.1995, passed a determination to lessen as far as possible to 444.23 sq. kilometers and make a range of 321.56. sq. kilometers rich with minerals like limestone, lignite, bauxite and bentonite, accessible for the advancement of the said in reverse territory of kutchh locale. The determination was goes in exercise of the forces gave by segment 26A(3) of the Wild life Protection Act. In accordance with that determination the Government issued a notice to that impact on 9.8.1995. The solicitor again tested those warnings by recording the writ a request. The High Court held that for around 1200 Chinkaras the region of 444.23 Sq. Km was very adequate. It additionally held that monetary advancement of the range was probably going to profit the general population of Kutchh District everywhere and help in security, conservation and improvement of widely varied vegetation of that zone. As respects consent to set up a bond plant close to that range and to do mining in the de-told zone, it held that legitimate conditions have been forced for counteracting contamination and to meet other ecological necessities. Taking this view it rejected the writ request. It was put together by Mr. Rajiv Dhawan, senior insight showing up for the applicant that the state Government had wrongly expected trusted that the motivation behind the notice dated 14.4.1991 was simply to ensure the Chinkaras around there. Truth be told it was issued with a view to secure the eco-framework too. He likewise presented that the state Government did not have any significant bearing its psyche to all the pertinent viewpoints, did not require any additional data and mostly depending upon the supposition of the state Government passed the reprimanded determination. He likewise presented that the way that there were an extensive number of trees on the land which was given on rent with the end goal of setting up the concrete plant was not conveyed to the notice of the council. The council was likewise not made mindful of the condition forced by the Union of India on 16.6.1995 that the verbal confrontation that the said determination came to be passed.
The Court watched: “It would in this manner be certain that in a fitting case, the Court would give suitable headings to the business, be it the State or its endeavor or private boss to make the privilege to life important; to avoid contamination of work place; security of the earth; insurance of the soundness of the laborer or to protect free and unpolluted water for the wellbeing and strength of the general population. The experts or even private people or ventures are bound by the bearings issued by this Court under Article 32 and Article 142 of the Constitution.”
5. T. Ramakrishna Rao vs. Hyderabad Development Authority:
(Condition Pollution is connected to Health and is infringement of ideal to existence with poise)
The Andhra Pradesh High Court watched: Protection of the earth is the obligation of the subjects as well as the commitment of the State and it’s all different organs including the Courts. The happiness regarding life and its achievement and satisfaction ensured by Article 21 of the Constitution grasps the security and protection of nature’s blessing without which life can’t be appreciated productively. The moderate harming of the climate brought about by the natural contamination and spoliation ought to be viewed as adding up to infringement of Article 21 of the Constitution of India. It is consequently, as held by this Court talking through P.A, Choudary, J., in T. Damodar Rao and others versus Exceptional Officer, Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad, AIR 1987 AP 171, the real obligation of the Courts as the implementing organs of the established targets to preclude all activities of the State and the residents from disquieting the biological and ecological adjust. In Virender Gaur versus Condition of Haryana, 1995 SCC 577, the Supreme Court held that natural, environmental, air and water contamination, and so on., ought to be viewed as adding up to infringement of appropriate to wellbeing ensured by Article 21 of the Constitution. It is on the whole correct to express that sterile condition is a basic aspect of the privilege to solid life and it would not be conceivable to live with human nobility without an others conscious and sound condition. In Consumer Education and Research Center versus Union of India, (1995) SCC 42, Kirloskar Brothers Ltd. versus Representatives’ State Insurance Corporation, (1996) SCC 682= AIR 1996 SC 3261, the Supreme Court held that privilege to wellbeing and therapeutic care is an essential battle under Article 21 read with Article 39(e), 41 and 43, In Subhash Kumar versus Condition of Bihar, AIR 1991 SC 420 = (1991) I SCC 598, the Supreme Court held that privilege to contamination free water and air is an enforceable basic right ensured under Article 21. So also in Shantistar Builders v. Narayan Khimalal Totame, (1990) SCJ 10 = AIR 1990 SC 630 = 1990 SCC 520, the Supreme Court opined that the privilege to good condition is secured by the privilege ensured under Article 21. Assist, in M.C. Mehta versus Union of India, (1987) SCC 463 = AIR 1988 SC 1037, Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra v. Condition of U.P., AIR 1987 SC 359, Subhash Kumar versus Condition of Bihar (supra), the Supreme Court forced a positive commitment upon the State to make strides for guaranteeing to the individual a superior delight in life and respect and for end of water and air contamination. It is likewise significant to see according to the judgment of the Supreme Court in Vincent Panikurlangara versus Union of India, AIR 1987 SC 990 – (1987) SCC 165, Unnikrishnan, JP versus Condition of A.P., AIR 1993 SC 2178 – (1993) 1 SCC 645, the upkeep and change of general wellbeing is the obligation of the State to satisfy its sacred commitments cast on it under Article 21 of the Constitution.
The Court watched: “It would along these lines be evident that in a suitable case, the Court would give fitting bearings to the business, be it the State or its endeavor or private manager to make the privilege to life important; to avert contamination of work place; assurance of the earth; insurance of the soundness of the laborer or to protect free and unpolluted water for the wellbeing and strength of the general population. The experts or even private people or ventures are bound by the headings issued by this Court under Article 32 and Article 142 of the Constitution.”
6. S.K. Garg vs. State of UP:
Satisfactory and Quality medicinal care is a piece of Right to Health and Right to Life)
The case was managing states of open healing centers. The Petition had been documented raising worries about the pitiable way of administrations accessible openly healing facilities in Allahabad. Protests were made concerning deficiency of blood donation centers, exhausted X-beam hardware, inaccessibility of fundamental medications and unhygienic conditions. The Court selected a Committee to go into these viewpoints and report back to the Court.
The High Court held: “As we would see it, the claims in the appeal to are not kidding. The Supreme Court in Consumer Education and Research Center and others v. Union of India and others. 1995 (3) and in State of Punjab and others v. Mohinder Singh Chawla and others. 1997 (2) has held that the privilege to wellbeing is a piece of the privilege to life ensured by Article 21 of the Constitution. It is surely genuine that a large portion of the Government Hospitals in Allahabad are in a terrible shape and need extraordinary change so that the Public is given appropriate restorative treatment. Any individual who goes to the Government Hospitals in Allahabad will discover troubling sterile and clean conditions. The needy individuals, especially, are not appropriately taken care of and not given legitimate restorative treatment. Therefore, a great many people who can bear the cost of it go to private nursing homes or private centers. There are numerous protests that the staff of the Government Hospitals are regularly in arrangement with the Doctors who run private nursing homes. also, intentionally don’t take care of the patients who come to Government Hospitals so they might be headed to go to private nursing homes and they frequently encourage patients to go to a specific nursing home. This should be altogether explored. This is a welfare State, and the general population have a privilege to get appropriate therapeutic treatment. In this association, it might be specified that in U.S.A. furthermore, Canada there is a law that no healing facility can reject medicinal treatment of a man on the ground of his neediness or powerlessness to pay. As we would see it. Article 21 of the Constitution, as deciphered in a progression of judgments of the Supreme Court, has the same lawful impact.”
7. Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samiti vs. State of W.B.:
In the above case Supreme Court however basically managing the issue of commitment of the State to give crisis human services to patients mentioned a general objective fact of noteworthiness: “Giving sufficient restorative offices is a fundamental piece of the commitment attempted by the State in a welfare state. The Government releases this commitment by running doctor’s facilities and wellbeing focuses. Article 21 forces a commitment on the State to shield ideal to life of each individual.”
8. Peoples’ Union of Civil Liberties vs. Union of India:
In the above case, open intrigue prosecution was recorded against the Government for retreating from a venture to manufacture a psychiatric healing facility cum-restorative school in Delhi. The arrangement had been endorsed however when it was found that over Rs. 40 crores would be the consumption, the Delhi Administration communicated its failure to store such a venture and the Central Government declined to assume on its liability. The Supreme Court held that setting up of a psychiatric clinic in the capital city was important. When land has been reserved and on rule a choice taken that doctor’s facility ought to be moved and some portion of it ought to be changed over into a showing foundation while the other part ought to be a healing center, financing ought not remain in method for finding such a doctor’s facility. As it was hard to store such an enormous sum in a solitary year, it was to be taken up as a ceaseless venture spread over a period. Consequently, the Central Government and the Delhi Administration were coordinated to recommence and complete the venture.
9. State of Tripura vs. Amrita Bala Sen:
(Medicinal carelessness is viewed as an infringement of individual’s entitlement to wellbeing)
The Division Bench of Gauhati High Court was worried with a situation where two people who were admitted to a Government healing facility for waterfall operation lost an eye each because of the operation. A Writ Petition was recorded straightforwardly in the high court by these two people guaranteeing remuneration from the State. The Division Bench found that the actualities were very certain and carelessness of the specialists was clear on the substance of the record. The Court in this manner guided the State to pay to each of these people remuneration of Rs. 60,000/ – with intrigue. The State contended that the concerned people ought to be made a request to document a common suit in neighborhood courts (which would have been tedious and furthermore costly) instead of moving toward the High Court specifically. In any case, the Court dismisses this dispute and held that when the certainties were clear, there was no requirement for the high court in instances of state carelessness to request that the complainants experience wordy legitimate procedures and could itself coordinate remuneration.
10. State of Punjab vs. Mohinder Singh Chawla:
(Privileges of Government Employees to Receive Health Care)
In this case,the Respondent was experiencing a heart infirmity, which required substitution of two heart valves. Since the office for such treatment was not accessible in the State healing center, the State Medical Board conceded authorization for treatment in AIIMS, New Delhi. Later the Respondent moved toward concerned experts for repayment of therapeutic use. The Appellants dismisses the claim on consumption on room lease paid to the doctor’s facility in view of an adjustment in the State approach for workers and ex-representatives that rejected costs brought about on eating regimen, remain of orderly and remain of patient in lodging/healing facility. In this way, the issue before SC was the degree of State’s duty to give therapeutic offices to its workers. The State legitimized its approach on the ground that the auxiliary costs saddled it with unnecessary substantial weight that restricted its ability to give treatment to general patients. The Supreme Court held that the lease of space for an in-patient is an essential piece of the costs acquired on therapeutic treatment, and couldn’t in this way, be barred. Despite the fact that the Court concurred that more noteworthy designation was required to be made for general patients, it was the State’s protected commitment to endure the costs for the administration worker while in administration or after retirement.
11. Ram Datt Sharma’s case:
The Rajasthan High Court managed obligation of the railroads in giving medicinal services offices to its travelers. The grumbling was that neither in the trains nor on the stages was sufficient therapeutic offices gave and this made colossal hardship suburbanites, particularly on long separation trains. The court held that the privilege to social insurance was a major right of all subjects, including travelers, and made the accompanying bearings:
(i) Instructions should be issued by Railway Board to Zonal Railway to keep save a Coupe’ of four births in long separation prepare that might convey sign board ‘Restorative FACILITIES’ with image of Red Cross. Unmistakable image of Red-cross should likewise be shown outside the compartment. Group of one Medical Officer, one made medical caretaker and one orderly might board prepare and go in it after a separation of 500 Kms. or, on the other hand as coordinated by the Railway Board the group officially voyaged should be supplanted by another group. The Coupe’ might be outfitted with Oxygen Cylinder, life sparing medications and infusions.
(ii) In each compartment of prepare, it might be unmistakably advised that Medical Compartment is connected with the prepare to give restorative help to the travelers free of cost by a capable specialist and grumbling book is accessible with the TrainGUARD.
(iii) Due attention that Medical offices are accessible to the travelers in throughout the entire the separation trains, might be given on every one of the Platforms. This data should likewise be shown on national Television and communicate on All India Radio. Individuals of Country should likewise be made mindful through the news papers.
(iv) Chemist offices should be given on the station premises remembering the quantum of traveler’s activity.
(v) The Union of India and Railway Board should guarantee consistence of request inside 60days from today.
12. Dr. Upendra Baxi vs. State of Uttar Pradesh:
(Appropriate to treatment)
In the above case ,the Supreme Court was called upon to uphold the human privileges of the inhabitants of State Protective Homes for ladies. The Court requested a medicinal board to analyze the prisoners at the Agra Home and present the report. The Report demonstrated that 33 out of 50 detainees had changing degrees of mental incapacity and had not been analyzed at the season of admission to the Home. Regardless of this the Superintendent had discharged 14 of them without deciding their mental state and with no cash to cover even their prepare passage to the places where they grew up. The Court prescribed that psychiatric treatment be given to the rationally sick detainees, for which the record of the time and place of the treatment ought to be kept up.
13. State of Punjab vs. Shiv Ram and Ors:
(Fizzled Sterlisation and Medical Negligence)
In this casethe Apex Court granted pay to the respondent for a situation of fizzled cleansing operation, however it upset the request of the lower court and the High Court and exonerated the State Government, the doctor’s facility experts and the specialists of carelessness in playing out the operation. The Court expressed in its request that, none of the techniques for female disinfection are secure and that no pervasive strategy ensures 100 for every penny achievement. A suit was documented against the woman specialist who was in the State Government’s work at the pertinent time, for recuperation of harms to the tune of Rs. 3, 00,000 by virtue of a female youngster having been conceived regardless of a tubectormy being perfomed on the spouse prior According to the bothered couple, they as of now had a child and two little girls from the marry bolt enduring more than 17 years. In light of an attention crusade completed by the Family Welfare Department of the litigant State, the spouse with the assent of husband experienced a sanitization operation on August 1, 1984. A testament in such manner bearing sign of ID No. 505, properly marked by the woman specialist who played out the said surgery, was issued to her. She was given a money honor of Rs. 150 as a motivator for the operation. On October 4, 1991, respondent No. 2 brought forth a female tyke. In the wake of serving a notice under Section 80 of the Code of Civil Procedure, a suit for recuperation of harms was documented on May 15, 1992 ascribing the introduction of the youngster to heedlessness and carelessness of the woman specialist. The plaint charged bury alia that the respondents viewed premature birth as a wrongdoing and that was the reason in the wake of knowing about the origination they didn’t choose fetus removal. The suit was declared for Rs. 50,000 with intrigue and expenses. The pronouncement for remuneration go by the trial court has been maintained by the principal re-appraising court. The second interest favored by the State has been summarily rejected. The State contended that it was not against the allowing the remuneration to the spouse as they were poor yet the state needed the legitimateness of such suits to be contended the same number of cases were being recorded with respect to fizzled family arranging operations under the watchful eye of the common courts and the buyer discussion. In its request the court examined the different techniques for cleansing in detail and furthermore repeated the standards with respect to medicinal carelessness. The court arrived at the conclusion that, the reason for activity for asserting remuneration in instances of fizzled cleansing operation emerges by virtue of carelessness of the specialist and not because of labor. Disappointment because of common causes would not give any ground to assert. It is for the lady who has imagined the tyke to go or not to go for therapeutic end of pregnancy. Having thought about the origination regardless of having experienced sanitization operation, if the couple selects bearing the youngster, it stops to be an undesirable kid. Pay for support and childhood of such a kid can’t be guaranteed. Thus the Apex Court brought up that the judgements go by the high court and courts beneath can’t be managed. Since the state had officially expressed that it was not against the pay granted to the ladies, the court held that if the remuneration has been paid to the casualty it ought not be reclaimed from her. This judgment has changed the course of judgements in the cases in regards to disappointment of disinfection operations.
14. Cehat and Ors. vs. Union of India:
(Misuse of medical technology)
In this case a public interest litigation filed for the implementation of the Pre Natal Diagnostic Techniques and (prevention of misuse) (PNDT) Act. The act was amended during the course of this petition and the Apex Court passed various orders for the effective implementation of the Act. In this case, CEHAT, MASUM an NGO and Sabu George an individual activist filed a petition before the Supreme Court stating that the PNDT act was not being implemented properly resulting in the falling female child sex ration in the country. The Supreme Court came down deeply on the central government and also the state government for failure to implement the act. The Act was amended while the petition was pending in the Supreme Court and several guidelines were passed by the Supreme Court for its proper implementation. Some of the important guidelines passed by the Apex Court while disposing of the petition:
a) For effective execution of the Act, information should be published by way of advertisement as well as on electronic media. This process should be sustained till there is awareness in public that there should not be any prejudice between male and female child.
b) periodical reports by the appropriate authority which are submitted to the Supervisory Board should be consolidated and published annually for information of the public at large.
c) Suitable authorities shall uphold the records of all the meetings of the Advisory Committees.
d) The National Monitoring and Inspection Committee constituted by the Central Government for conducting periodic inspection shall continue to function till the Act is well executed. The reports of this Committee be positioned before the Central Supervisory Board and State Supervisory Board for any advance action.
e) Rule 17(3), public would have access to the records maintained by diverse bodies constituted under the Act.
f) Central Supervisory Board would ensure that the following States appoint the State Supervisory Board as per the prerequisite of Section 16A.
1. Delhi
2. Himachal Pradesh
3. Tamil Nadu
4. Tripura
5. Uttar Pradesh.
g) As per requirement of Section 17(3)(a), the Central Supervisory Board would ensure that the following States appoint the multi-member suitable authorities:
1. Jharkhand
2. Maharashtra
3. Tripura
4. Tamil Nadu
5. Uttar Pradesh It will be open to the parties to approach this Court in case of any difficulty in implementing the aforesaid directions.
15. Lucy D’ Souza vs. State of Goa:
(Disengagement)
This was one of the principal suits on the issue of HIV/AIDS in India. S. 53(1) (vii) of the Goa Public Health Act, 1987, engaged the legislature to separate a man enduring with AIDS. The Act did not determine a specific time of disconnection or where it ought to happen, yet that seclusion was worthy for such individual, and at such foundation or ward as might be endorsed. Along these lines wide powers were given to the legislature to take away the freedom of the person on grounds that a man was experiencing AIDS. Aside from the infringement of the rights ensured under the Constitution of India, the appeal to raised four fundamental issues with respect to this arrangement: 1. Arrangement for seclusion depends on wrong logical material and establishment; 2. protest looked to be accomplished by segregation is invalidated by the arrangement; 3. carefulness to disengage is unguided and uncontrolled; and 4. the arrangement for detachment is procedurally treacherous without the privilege of hearing While managing the angles (1) and (2) the court was of the sentiment that, separation was an intrusion of the individual freedom of a man and it might likewise prompt segregation. The court additionally held that an adjust must be drawn between the privilege of the individual and society on the loose. In a circumstance of contention between the privilege of a private individual and the general public everywhere the last ought to beat the previous. It was likewise viewed as that the detachment may prompt individuals not approaching and going underground on the off chance that they are experiencing HIV/AIDS. Along these lines they won’t have the capacity to take appropriate treatment. As to dispute that the tact of seclusion was unguided and uncontrolled, the court held that the legislature was inside its forces to make arrangements for controlling the spread of AIDS. It additionally expressed that legitimate tenets had been defined by the legislature in such manner. In the matter of notice and hearing preceding the activity of seclusion the court held that there were many arrangements and activities where consistence with this standard of characteristic equity impractical. The court was additionally of the assessment that the state of earlier hearing and notice would baffle the arrangement of seclusion. Such a hearing could be given after the separation.
16. Common Cause vs. Union of India:
(Blood donation centers)
Under the above case the Supreme Court set down rules with respect to operation of blood donation centers. The issue raised under the watchful eye of the court was that the inadequacies and weaknesses in gathering, stockpiling and supply of blood through blood focuses working in the nation could demonstrate deadly. Blood is one of the mediums through which HIV/AIDS is transmitted. Blood has turned into a product. A few people wind up noticeably proficient contributors as it is a wellspring of acquiring for them. Blood donation centers assume an imperative part at various phases of restorative treatment. Since the supply of wrong sort or sullied blood can cost lives of patients, the Court felt that it was fundamental to direct the gift of blood and its quality. Under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 blood is dealt with as a “medication” with the end goal of controlling its accumulation, stockpiling and supply.5 The PIL was against the insufficiencies and deficiencies in gathering, stockpiling and supply of blood through blood focuses working in the nation. The Supreme Court issued the accompanying bearings concerning operation of blood donation centers. z The Union Government might find a way to set up forthwith a National Council of Blood Transfusion as a general public enrolled under the Societies Registration Act. z In meeting with the National Council, the State Government/Union Territory (UT) Administration should set up State Councils, which might be enlisted as a general public under the Societies Registration Act, in all States/UTs. z The National Council should attempt preparing programs for preparing of specialized faculty in different fields associated with the operation of blood donation centers. z The National Council should make strides for beginning exceptional postgraduate courses in blood accumulation, handling, stockpiling and transfusion and partners field in different therapeutic schools and foundations in the nation. z The Union Government, State Governments and UTs ought to guarantee that inside a time of not over a year all blood donation centers collaborating in the nation are properly authorized and if a blood donation center is discovered poorly prepared for being authorized, and stays unlicensed after the expiry of the time of one year, its operations ought to be rendered unthinkable through reasonable legitimate activity. z The Union Government, State Governments and UTs might find a way to dishearten the predominant arrangement of expert givers so that the arrangement of expert givers is totally wiped out inside a time of not over two years. z The current apparatus for the requirement of the arrangements of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act and Rules ought to be fortify and reasonable move be made in such manner on the premise of the Scheme put together by the Drugs Controller (I) to the Union Government for up-degree of the Drugs Control Organization at the Center and the States. z Necessary strides ought to be taken to guarantee that Drugs Inspectors properly prepared in blood managing an account operations are posted in sufficient numbers to guarantee periodical checking of the operations of the blood donation centers all through the nation. The Union Government ought to consider the suitability of ordering a different enactment for directing the gathering, preparing, capacity, dispersion and transportation of blood and the operation of the blood donation centers in the nation. This bearing, obviously has up ’til now not been completed. In India, the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897 requires therapeutic professionals to advise the wellbeing officer of any individual with irresistible sickness and unveil the character of the person. The Goa Public Health (Amendment) Act, as well, by suggestion, takes into consideration divulgence/warning to open authorities of an individual’s HIV status by giving them the ability to test and segregate such people they think of having the infection. The weighing of the social and individual outcomes is not generally a simple errand. As a rule, the specialist needs to survey the danger of disease to an outsider brought on by his patient’s hesitance to reveal his HIV status. He needs to adjust his obligation to caution the outsider with that of classification concerning his patient.
CONCLUSION:
From the above exchange, obviously the Indian Constitution communicates its profound sympathy toward human, creature, plant and sea-going wellbeing in India. It can likewise be seen that in the Indian Federal Set-up, various layers of Government have been vested with various duty towards different parts of wellbeing. There is by all accounts an unmistakable financial method of reasoning and regulatory convenience in relegating these duties. The Constitution likewise stipulates certain obligations for the residents towards adding to the advancement of wellbeing in the nation.
There may be various deviations in the real practice from the Constitutional arrangement. It ought to be conceded notwithstanding, that a legitimate acknowledgment of the requirement for such deviations practically speaking might be considered as a valuable reason for the adjustments in the Constitutional required for the improvement of the wellbeing of the nationals, creatures and the plants in the Indian country. The idea of wellbeing for all needs to cover the strength of all living elements. It appears the Indian Constitutions has shown its energy about such a far reaching impression of wellbeing for all. Without a doubt as on account of all inclusive rudimentary training, there is no stipulation of the day and age so far as request of the objective of wellbeing for all is concerned.
Notwithstanding, the Constitution creators have likewise valued the requirement for adaptable and down to business approach in not indicating at whatever time outline for achieving the objectives. The Constitution which is an explanation of the country’s aims and attempts ought to be translated so on account of the objective of wellbeing for all too, generally, improbable time stipulation for the objectives would just excite exclusive standards and their non realization would just prompt disappointment. This is especially genuine when we are thinking about a complete idea of wellbeing for comprehensive of human, plant and creature and amphibian wellbeing, covering physical wellbeing as well as emotional well-being. It might, however be attractive to show some solid strides of activity with time stipulations in any event as to some of activity with time stipulations in any event as to a few things certain non debatable in the wellbeing segment. Which things are the nonnegotiable in the wellbeing segment must be however chosen now and again and subsequently may shape some portion of the aggregate basic leadership.
1 1980 Cri LJ 1075
2 AIR 1992 SC 573,585
3 AIR 1997 Ori 37
4 (1995) 3 SCC 42
5 Writ Petition 36929/1998 T. Ramakrishna Rao vs. Hyderabad Urban Development Authority decided on 20.7.2001
6 In S.K.Garg vs. State of U.P. decided on 21.12.98
7 (1996)4 SCC 37
8 Decision of the Supreme Court given on 12/11/1991
9 2005 1 GLR 7
10 (1997) 2 SCC 83
11 AIR 2005 RAJ 317
12 (1983) 2 SCC 308
13 AIR 2005 SC 3280
14 AIR 2003 SC 3309
15 AIR 90 BOM 355
16 AIR 1996 SC 929